Animal blood tests

Biochemical blood analysis

Animal blood tests. Their significance for the doctor and the patient

During a clinical examination of an animal, various instrumental studies (examination, auscultation, thermometry, percussion, palpation), we can observe an increase in one or another pet organ, hear its contents, observe a painful reaction, visually it may be a change in the color of mucous membranes and skin, etc. but this does not give us an understanding of the degree of damage to a dog or cat, we cannot understand the nature of the disease. I would like to note that no research method is able to give as much information as an animal blood test.

Often, at a doctor's appointment, animal owners hear that it is necessary to donate blood for analysis: whether it is a general clinical blood test of dogs or cats, ESR, biochemistry

The main features and benefits of taking a blood test:

1. Reduction of time in diagnosis.
2. It is easy to establish the degree of violation of an organ or system, make an accurate prognosis in treatment.
3. Establishing the cause of the disease.
4. The ability to find out the nature of the course of the disease (acute, subacute, chronic).
5. The ability to prevent the development of any diseases or to stop at an early stage.
6. Control and correction of treatment.

UAC (General Clinical Blood test)

There is such a thing as homeostasis (constancy of the internal environment of the body), the body is always exposed to various environmental factors and gives a specific response to the stimulus. Each cell (shaped element) blood has its own functions and responsibilities in protecting the body. With an increase or decrease in the number of certain cells, we can talk about a possible cause of the disease.

Example:

Leukocytosis (increased amount) - as a pathological reaction most often indicates an infectious or aseptic inflammatory process in the body.

Eosinophilia (increased amount) — occurs in many diseases, but most often occurs in autoimmune, parasitic, rheumatic diseases, neoplasms, etc.

Basic requirements for blood donation:

1. Blood is usually taken for analysis in the morning, from 8 to 11 o'clock, on an empty stomach (at least 8 hours and no more than 14 hours of hunger, you can not limit yourself to drinking), avoid overfeeding the animal.
2. If any drugs are injected into the body, it is recommended to consult a doctor because medications may change the ratio of blood elements when administered.
3. Try to avoid physical and emotional stress on the eve of the study.
4. If the animal is tested repeatedly, it is necessary to donate blood under the same conditions (time of day).

ESR - (erythrocyte sedimentation rate), this is one of the components of the blood test, makes it clear how quickly erythrocyte sedimentation occurs, i.e. agglomeration (gluing) of erythrocytes. It has a very great diagnostic value and contributes to the creation of the most accurate prognosis, as well as the control of dynamics in a number of diseases.

An increase in ESR in the blood in dogs and cats can be observed with various inflammatory processes:

1. Inflammatory processes and infections.
2. Diseases in which there is not only an inflammatory process, but also decomposition of tissues (necrosis), shaped blood elements, purulent and septic diseases; neoplasms; infarctions of parenchymal orgones, pulmonary tuberculosis, etc.
3. Connective tissue diseases and systemic vasculitis: rheumatism, arthritis, dermatomyositis, scleroderma.
4. Metabolic diseases.
5. Diseases of the hematopoietic and lymphatic tissues of the body
6. Anemia, hemolysis, blood loss, etc.
7. Hypoalbuminemia on the background of kidney diseases, cachexia, blood loss.
8. Liver diseases.
9. Pregnancy, postpartum period, during the sexual cycle in females.

Reduced ESR in the blood in dogs and cats

1. Erythremia and erythrocytosis.
2. Diseases accompanied by changes in the shape of erythrocytes: sickle cell anemia, hemoglobinopathies, spherocytosis, anisocytosis.
3. Hyperalbuminemia, hypofibrinogenemia and hypoglobulinemia.
4. Diseases associated with an increase in bile pigments and bile acids in the blood: hepatitis of various nature, cholistasis.
5. Severe circulatory insufficiency.
6. Epilepsy and neuroses.
7. The use of certain medicinal preparations: salicylates, calcium chloride, mercury preparations.

Biochemistry is a blood test in animals that gives an understanding of the functioning of a particular organ. It can tell about the deficiencies in the animal's body of a particular vitamin or element.

Even if your animal does not have any manifestations of the disease, and your pet feels perfectly healthy, this analysis will help to determine which of the organs does not do its job well and does not function as it should. Any change in the chemical composition of the blood indicates an unhealthy state of the body .

To do the biochemistry of your pet's blood, it is necessary to take venous blood. The study of blood is aimed at identifying its composition, the results of the study are entered in a special form. An experienced doctor will easily compare the results of a blood test and the symptoms of the disease and make an accurate diagnosis based on them.

Biochemical analysis of animal blood involves the study of the following components of the body 's metabolism:

* proteins,
* enzymes
• * lipids,
* carbohydrates,
* pigments
• * low molecular weight nitrogenous substances,
* inorganic substances and vitamins

There are norms of biochemical parameters that must be present in the blood of an animal of a certain age and gender. These are statistically established indicators of healthy animals. Deviation from the norm is a symptom of various disorders in the activity of the body, a malfunction in the work of certain organs or systems.

1. Glucose is a universal source of energy for cells - the main substance from which any cell of the body receives energy for life. The body's need for energy, which means glucose, increases in parallel with physical and psychological stress under the influence of the stress hormone - adrenaline, during growth, development, recovery (growth hormones, thyroid gland, adrenal glands).

The average value for dogs is 4.3-7.3 mmol/l, cats - 3.3-6.3 mmol/l.

For the assimilation of glucose by cells, a normal content of insulin, the hormone of the pancreas, is necessary. With its deficiency (diabetes mellitus), glucose cannot pass into the cells, its level in the blood is elevated, and the cells are starving.

Increase (hyperglycemia):

- diabetes mellitus (insulin deficiency)
- physical or emotional stress (adrenaline rush)
- thyrotoxicosis (increased thyroid function)
- Cushing's syndrome (increased levels of adrenal hormone - cortisol)
- diseases of the pancreas (pancreatitis, tumor, cystic fibrosis)
- chronic liver and kidney diseases

Decrease (hypoglycemia):

- starvation
- an overdose of insulin
- diseases of the pancreas (a tumor from cells synthesizing insulin)
- tumors (excessive consumption of glucose as an energy material by tumor cells)
- insufficiency of the function of the endocrine glands (adrenal glands, thyroid, pituitary gland (growth hormone))
- severe poisoning with liver damage (alcohol, arsenic, chlorine, phosphorus compounds, salicylates, antihistamines)

2. Total protein

"Life is the way protein bodies exist." Proteins are the main biochemical criterion of life. They are part of all anatomical structures (muscles, cell membranes), carry substances through the blood and into cells, accelerate the course of biochemical reactions in the body, recognize substances - their own or someone else's and protect them from strangers, regulate metabolism, keep fluid in blood vessels and prevent it from going into tissues. Proteins are synthesized in the liver from the amino acids of food.

The total blood protein consists of two fractions: albumins and globulins.

Average for dogs - 59-73 g/l, cats - 54-77 g/l.

Increase (hyperproteinemia):

- dehydration (burns, diarrhea, vomiting - a relative increase in protein concentration due to a decrease in fluid volume)
- myeloma (excessive production of gamma globulins)

Decrease (hypoproteinemia):

- fasting (full or protein - strict vegetarianism, anorexia nervosa)
- intestinal diseases (malabsorption)
- nephrotic syndrome (renal failure)
- increased consumption (blood loss, burns, tumors, ascites, chronic and acute inflammation)
- chronic liver failure (hepatitis, cirrhosis)

3. Albumin is one of the two fractions of the total protein - transport.

The norm for dogs is 22-39 g/ l, cats - 25-37 g/ l.

Elevation (hyperalbuminemia):

There is no true (absolute) hyperalbuminemia. Relative occurs when the total volume of fluid decreases (dehydration)

Decrease (hypoalbuminemia):

The same as for general hypoproteinemia.

4. Total bilirubin is a component of bile, it consists of two fractions - indirect (unbound), formed during the breakdown of blood cells (erythrocytes), and direct (bound), formed from indirect in the liver and excreted through the bile ducts into the intestine. It is a coloring substance (pigment), therefore, when it increases in the blood, the color of the skin changes - jaundice.

Increase (hyperbilirubinemia):

- damage to liver cells (hepatitis, hepatosis - parenchymal jaundice)
- obstruction of the bile ducts (mechanical jaundice)
 
5. Urea is a protein metabolism product that is removed by the kidneys. Part remains in the blood.

The norm for a dog is 3-8.5 mmol /l, for a cat - 4-10.5 mmol /l.

Raising:

- impaired renal function
- obstruction of the urinary tract
- increased protein content in food
- increased protein destruction (burns, acute myocardial infarction)

Decline:

- protein starvation
- excessive protein intake (pregnancy, acromegaly)
- malabsorption

6. Creatinine is the end product of creatine metabolism, synthesized in the kidneys and liver from three amino acids (arginine, glycine, methionine). It is completely excreted from the body by the kidneys by glomerular filtration, without being reabsorbed in the renal tubules.

The norm for dogs is 30-170 mmol/ l, cats - 55-180 mmol/ l.

Increased:

- impaired renal function (renal failure)
- hyperthyroidism

Lowered:

- pregnancy
- age-related decrease in muscle mass

7. Alanine aminotransferase (ALAT) is an enzyme produced by cells of the liver, skeletal muscles and heart.

The norm for a dog is 0-65 units, for a cat - 0-75 units.

Raising:

- destruction of liver cells (necrosis, cirrhosis, jaundice, tumors)
- destruction of muscle tissue (trauma, myositis, muscular dystrophy)
- burns
- toxic effect on the liver of drugs (antibiotics, etc.)

8. Aspartate aminotransferase (ASAT) is an enzyme produced by cells of the heart, liver, skeletal muscles and red blood cells.

The average content in dogs is 10-42 units, in cats - 9-30 units.

Raising:

- damage to liver cells (hepatitis, toxic damage by drugs, liver metastases)
- heavy physical activity
- heart failure
- burns, heat stroke

9. Gamma-glutamyltransferase (Gamma-GT) is an enzyme produced by cells of the liver, pancreas, thyroid gland.

The norm for a dog is 0-8 units, a cat is 0-3 units.

Raising:

- liver diseases (hepatitis, cirrhosis, cancer)
- diseases of the pancreas (pancreatitis, diabetes mellitus)
- hyperthyroidism (hyperthyroidism)

10. Alpha-Amylase is an enzyme produced by cells of the pancreas and parotid salivary glands.

The norm for a dog is 550-1700 units, for a cat - 450-1550 units.

Raising:

- pancreatitis (inflammation of the pancreas)
- mumps (inflammation of the parotid salivary gland)
- diabetes mellitus
- inversion of the stomach and intestines
- peritonitis

Decline:

- insufficiency of pancreatic function
- thyrotoxicosis

11. Potassium, sodium, chlorides - provide electrical properties of cell membranes. On different sides of the cell membrane, the difference in concentration and charge is specially maintained: sodium and chlorides are more outside the cell, and potassium is inside, but less than sodium outside - this creates a potential difference between the sides of the cell membrane - a resting charge that allows the cell to be alive and respond to nerve impulses, participating in the systemic activity of the body. Losing the charge, the cell drops out of the system, because it cannot perceive the commands of the brain. Thus, sodium and chlorides are extracellular ions, potassium is intracellular. In addition to maintaining the resting potential, these ions take part in the generation and conduction of a nerve impulse - an action potential. Regulation of mineral metabolism in the body (hormones of the adrenal cortex) is aimed at the retention of sodium, which is not enough in natural foods (without table salt) and the removal of potassium from the blood, where it gets when cells are destroyed. Ions together with other dissolved substances retain fluid: cytoplasm inside cells, extracellular fluid in tissues, blood in blood vessels, regulating blood pressure, preventing the development of edema. Chlorides are part of gastric juice.

12. Potassium:

The norm for a dog is 3.6-5.5, for a cat - 3.5-5.3 mmol/l.

Increased potassium (hyperkalemia):

- cell damage (hemolysis - destruction of blood cells, severe starvation, convulsions, severe injuries)
- dehydration
- acute renal failure (violation of renal excretion)
- hyperadrenocorticosis

Potassium reduction (hypokalemia)

- chronic fasting (non-access to food)
- prolonged vomiting, diarrhea (loss with intestinal juice)
- impaired kidney function
- excess hormones of the adrenal cortex (including taking cortisone dosage forms)
- hypoadrenocorticosis

13. Sodium

The norm for a dog is 140-155, for a cat - 150-160 mmol / l.

Increased sodium (hypernatremia):

- excessive salt intake
- loss of extracellular fluid (severe vomiting and diarrhea, increased urination (diabetes insipidus)
- excessive delay (increased function of the adrenal cortex)
- violation of the central regulation of water-salt metabolism (hypothalamus pathology, coma)

Sodium reduction (hyponatremia):

- loss (abuse of diuretics, kidney pathology, adrenal insufficiency)
- decrease in concentration due to increased fluid volume (diabetes mellitus, chronic heart failure, cirrhosis of the liver, nephrotic syndrome, edema)

14. Chlorides

The norm for a dog is 105-122, for a cat – 114-128 mmol / l.

Increase of chlorides:

- dehydration
- acute renal failure
- diabetes insipidus
- poisoning with salicylates
- increased function of the adrenal cortex

Reduction of chlorides:

- profuse diarrhea, vomiting,
- increase in liquid volume

15. Calcium -Participates in the conduction of nerve impulses, especially in the heart muscle. Like all ions, it retains fluid in the vascular bed, preventing the development of edema. It is necessary for muscle contraction, blood clotting. It is a part of bone tissue and tooth enamel. The level in the blood is regulated by the hormone of the parathyroid glands and vitamin D. Parathyroid hormone increases the level of calcium in the blood, washing out of bones, increasing absorption in the intestine and delaying excretion by the kidneys.

The norm for a dog is 2.25–3 mmol/l, for a cat - 2.1–2.8 mmol/l.

Elevation (hypercalcemia):

- increased function of the parathyroid gland
- malignant tumors with bone lesions (metastases, myeloma, leukemia)
- excess vitamin D
- dehydration

Decrease (hypocalcemia):

- decreased thyroid function
- vitamin D deficiency
- chronic renal failure
- magnesium deficiency

16. Inorganic phosphorus is an element that is part of nucleic acids, bone tissue and the main energy supply systems of the cell - ATP. It is regulated in parallel with the level of calcium.

The norm for a dog is 0.8–2.3, for a cat - 0.9–2.3 mmol /l.

Raising:

- destruction of bone tissue (tumors, leukemia)
- excess vitamin D
- healing of fractures
- endocrine disorders
- kidney failure

Decline:

- lack of growth hormone
- vitamin D deficiency
- malabsorption, severe diarrhea, vomiting
- hypercalcemia

17. Alkaline phosphatase is an enzyme formed in bone tissue, liver, intestines, placenta, lungs.

The norm for a dog is 0-100, for a cat – 4-85 units.

Raising:

- pregnancy
- increased metabolism in bone tissue (rapid growth, healing of fractures, rickets, hyperparathyroidism)
- bone diseases (osteogenic sarcoma, bone cancer metastases)
- liver diseases

Decline:

- hypothyroidism (hypofunction of the thyroid gland)
- anemia (anemia)

- lack of vitamin C, B12, zinc, magnesium

LIPIDS

Lipids (fats) are substances necessary for a living organism. The main lipid that a person receives from food, and from which their own lipids are then formed, is cholesterol. It is a part of cell membranes, maintains their strength. So-called steroid hormones are synthesized from it: hormones of the adrenal cortex, regulating water-salt and carbohydrate metabolism, adapting the body to new conditions; sex hormones. Bile acids are formed from cholesterol, which are involved in the absorption of fats in the intestine. Vitamin D is synthesized from cholesterol in the skin under the influence of sunlight, which is necessary for the absorption of calcium. If the integrity of the vascular wall is damaged and / or there is an excess of cholesterol in the blood, it is deposited on the wall and forms a cholesterol plaque. This condition is called vascular atherosclerosis: plaques narrow the lumen, interfere with blood flow, disrupt the smoothness of blood flow, increase blood clotting, contribute to the formation of blood clots. Various complexes of lipids with proteins circulating in the blood are formed in the liver: high, low and very low density lipoproteins (HDL, LDL, VLDL); total cholesterol is divided between them. Low and very low density lipoproteins are deposited in plaques and contribute to the progression of atherosclerosis. High-density lipoproteins due to the presence of a special protein in them - apoprotein A1 - contribute to the "pulling" of cholesterol from plaques and play a protective role, stop atherosclerosis. To assess the risk of the condition, it is not the total level of total cholesterol that is important, but the ratio of its fractions.

18. Total cholesterol

The norm for a dog is 2.9–8.3, for a cat - 2-5.9 mmol / l.

Raising:

- liver diseases
- hypothyroidism (insufficiency of thyroid function)
- coronary heart disease (atherosclerosis)
- hyperadrenocorticism

Decline:

- enteropathy accompanied by protein loss
- hepatopathy (portocaval anastomosis, cirrhosis)
- malignant neoplasms
- poor nutrition

 General clinical blood test

A general blood test is a research method that allows you to obtain information about the state of the blood system (its liquid part, fractions of shaped elements and their properties, leukocyte formula), the amount of hemoglobin, color indicator and assess the state of the internal environment.

This analysis is auxiliary for any type of pathology, together with anamnesis, clinical signs, instrumental and laboratory diagnostic methods. Also, a general analysis together with a biochemical one is able to give a thorough and detailed picture of the functioning of both the whole organism as a whole and its individual organs and systems. That is why this analysis is also recommended to be carried out during rapid planned surgical interventions in order to expose possible risks.

It is advisable to take a general blood test in the morning and on an empty stomach. The sample is taken from the peripheral veins (in severe condition and severe dehydration, it is allowed to take a sample directly from the jugular vein) into a test tube with an anticoagulant (EDTA).

Interpretation of the results should be carried out only by a qualified veterinarian, having considered all the cause-and-effect relationships between the indicators and symptoms of the animal's disease, then makes a final verdict and makes a diagnosis.

Indicators of the general blood test: their norms and significance.

1. Hematocrit - hematocrit, HCT - the percentage of blood plasma and the shaped elements in it.

Norms, %:

- cats: 30 - 45;
- dogs: 37 - 55;

2. Erythrocytes - RBC – "red blood cells", nuclear-free shaped elements of blood, the main function of which is the transport of oxygen from the airways to organs and tissues.

Norms, million/µl:

- cats: 5 - 10;
- dogs: 5,6 - 8,0;

3. The average volume of red blood cells - MCV - is an indicator that characterizes the capacity of red blood cells. It is of paramount importance in the diagnosis of anemia of various types.

Norms, mm3×l:

- cats: 43 - 53;
- dogs: 60 - 75;

4. Color indicator - CP - intensity of erythrocyte saturation with hemoglobin. It is the main diagnosticum of hypo- and hyperchromic anemia.

Norms:

- cats: 0.75 - 1.05;
- dogs: 0.65 - 0.9;

5. Erythrocyte sedimentation rate - ESR, ESR - is a special indicator indicating a violation of plasma composition (destruction of protein fractions). Detects inflammatory, destructive processes in the body.

Norms, mm/h:

- cats: 0 - 13;
- dogs: 0 - 22;
 
6. Platelets - PLT - nuclear-free shaped elements of blood, fragments of megakaryocytes that play a primary role in the process of blood clotting (formation of a clot, - thrombus).

Norms, thousand/mkl:

- cats: 300 - 700;
- dogs: 190 - 550;

7. Hemoglobin - HGB, Hb - an iron-containing protein element that fills red blood cells and is able to bind oxygen for its further transportation to tissues.

Norms, g/l:

- cats: 300 - 700;
- dogs: 120 - 180;

8. The average concentration of hemoglobin in the erythrocyte - MCHC – the average saturation of the erythrocyte with hemoglobin.

Norms, %:

- cats: 31 - 36;
- dogs: 33 - 38;

9. Leukocytes - WBC - "white blood cells", shaped blood elements having a nucleus, whose main function is to protect the body from various pathological agents, as well as from internal typical pathological processes accompanied by powerful inflammation. They are divided into 2 fractions: granulocytes, or cells having granularity in the nucleus (neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils) and agranulocytes, with a monochrome, non-granular nucleus (lymphocytes and monocytes).

Norms, thousand/mkl:

- cats: 5.5 - 18.5;
- dogs: 6 - 16;

10. Neutrophils - NEUT% - white blood cells with a granular nucleus. They are divided into rod-shaped (young neutrophils, with a whole, elongated nucleus) and segmented (mature neutrophils, with a nucleus having multiple "jumpers" segmenting it).

Norms, %:

-
rod-core: dogs and cats 0 - 3;
- segmentonuclear:
cats 35 - 75;
dogs 60 - 70;

11. Basophils - BA% - the fraction of leukocytes responsible for allergic reactions of delayed and immediate types.

They are extremely rare in small domestic animals.

12. Eosinophils - EO% - granulocytic leukocytes with microphage properties, capable of absorbing various inflammatory mediators, thereby participating in allergic reactions.

The norm, %:

- cats: 0 - 4;
- dogs: 2 - 10;

13. Monocytes - MON% - agranulocytic leukocytes with the ability to phagocytize foreign agents.  One of the factors of nonspecific immunity.

The norm, %:

- cats: 1 - 4;
- dogs: 3 - 10;

14. Lymphocytes – ATL% - white blood cells responsible for the recognition of the antigen and the formation of an appropriate immune response to its introduction. There are T- and B-lymphocytes (the former are responsible for cellular immunity, the latter for humoral, namely, for the production of antigen-specific antibodies).

The norm, %:

- cats: 20 - 55;
- dogs: 12 - 30;

Biochemical blood analysis - norms for dogs and cats, R.W. Kirk

Hemogram of cats of different ages and genders (R.W.Kirk)

Enzymes.

Enzymes are the main biological catalysts, i.e. substances of natural origin that accelerate chemical reactions. Also, enzymes take part in the regulation of many metabolic processes, thereby ensuring that the metabolism corresponds to the changed conditions. Almost all enzymes are proteins. Depending on the reaction and substrate specificity, there are six main classes of enzymes (oxyreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, isomerases and ligases). In total, at the moment, more than 2000 enzymes are known.

The catalytic action of the enzyme, i.e. its activity, is determined under standard conditions by increasing the rate of the catalytic reaction compared to the non-catalytic one. The reaction rate is usually indicated as a change in the concentration of the substrate or product per unit time (mmol/l per second). Another unit of activity is the International Unit –Unit) - the amount of an enzyme that converts 1 micromole of substrate in 1 minute.

The following enzymes are of primary importance for the clinic:

Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST, AsAT)

An intracellular enzyme involved in amino acid metabolism. It is found in high concentrations in the liver, heart, skeletal muscles, brain, and red blood cells. It is released when tissue is damaged.

Reference intervals: for dogs - 11 - 42 units; for cats - 9 - 29 Units.

Increased: Necrosis of liver cells of any etiology, acute and chronic hepatitis, necrosis of the heart muscle, necrosis or injury of skeletal muscles, fatty liver dystrophy, damage to brain tissue, kidneys, the use of anticoagulants, vitamin C

Lowered: Has no diagnostic value (rarely with a lack of pyridoxine (Vitamin B6).

ALANINE AMINOTRANSFERASE (ALT, AlAT)

An intracellular enzyme involved in amino acid metabolism. It is found in high concentrations in the liver, kidneys, in the muscles - in the heart and skeletal muscles. It is released when tissue is damaged, especially with liver damage.

Reference intervals: for dogs - 9 - 52 Units; for cats - 19 - 79 Units.

Increased: Cell necrosis, acute and chronic hepatitis, cholangitis, fatty liver dystrophy, liver tumors, the use of anticoagulants

Downgraded: Has no diagnostic value

CREATINE PHOSPHOKINASE (CFK, CC)

CPK consists of three isoenzymes consisting of two subunits, M and B. Skeletal musculature is represented by the MM isoenzyme (CFK-MM), the brain is represented by the BB isoenzyme (CFK-BB), the myocardium contains about 40% of the MV isoenzyme (CFK-MV).

Reference intervals: for dogs - 32 - 157 units; for cats - 150 - 798 units.

in young animals during the growth period, LDH activity increases by 2-3 times.

Increased: Myocardial infarction (2-24 hours; highly specific CPK-MV). Injuries, operations, myocarditis, muscular dystrophy, polymyositis, convulsions, infections, embolisms, severe physical exertion, brain tissue damage, cerebral hemorrhage, anesthesia, poisoning (including sleeping pills), coma, Reye's syndrome. Slight increase in congestive heart failure, tachycardia, arthritis.

Downgraded: Has no diagnostic value.

gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT)

GGT is present in the liver, kidneys, and pancreas. The test is extremely sensitive to liver diseases. The establishment of a high value of GGT is used to confirm the hepatic origin of the activity of serum alkaline phosphatase.

Reference intervals: for dogs - 1 - 10 Units; for cats - 1 - 10 Units.

Elevated: Hepatitis, cholestasis, tumors and cirrhosis of the liver, pancreas, post-infarction period;

Downgraded: Has no diagnostic value.

lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)

LDH is an enzyme that catalyzes the internal conversion of lactate and pyruvate in the presence of NAD/NADH. It is widely distributed in cells and body fluids. It increases with the destruction of tissues (artificially inflated with hemolysis of red blood cells with improper collection and storage of blood). It is represented by five isoenzymes (LDG1 - LDG5)

Reference intervals: for adult dogs - 23 - 164 units; for adult cats - 55 - 155 units.

in young animals during the growth period, LDH activity increases by 2-3 times.

Increased: Myocardial tissue damage (2-7 days after the development of myocardial infarction), leukemia, necrotic processes, tumors, hepatitis, pancreatitis, nephritis, muscular dystrophy, skeletal muscle damage, hemolytic anemia, circulatory insufficiency, leptospirosis, infectious cat peritonitis.

Downgraded: Has no diagnostic value

Cholinesterase (HE)

HE is found mainly in the blood serum, liver, pancreas. Plasma HE is an extracellular enzyme of glycoprotein nature, formed in liver parenchyma cells.

Reference intervals: dogs - from 2200 E/l cats - from 2000 E/l

Increased: Has no diagnostic value.

Reduced: Subacute and chronic liver diseases and lesions (due to impaired hepatocyte synthesis of HE), organophosphate poisoning.

AMYLASE (DIASTASE)

Amylase hydrolyzes complex carbohydrates. Serum alpha-amylase occurs primarily from the pancreas (pancreatic) and salivary glands, the activity of the enzyme increases with inflammation or obstruction. Other organs also have some amylase activity – the small and large intestines, skeletal muscles, and ovaries.

Reference intervals: for dogs (alpha-amylase) - 685 - 2155 units; for cats (alpha-amylase) - 580 - 1720 units.  

Increased: Pancreatitis, mumps, renal insufficiency (acute and chronic), poisoning, diabetes mellitus, acute hepatitis, primary biliary cirrhosis of the liver, inversion of the stomach and intestines, peritonitis, electrolyte metabolism disorder.

Reduced: Pancreatic necrosis, thyrotoxicosis, poisoning with arsenic, barbiturates, carbon tetrachloride; the use of anticoagulants.

alkaline phosphatase (alkaline phosphatase)

Alkaline phosphatase is found in the liver, bones, intestines and placenta. To differentiate the activity of alkaline phosphatase (liver or bones), the definition of GGT is used (increased in liver diseases, and unchanged in bone diseases).

Reference intervals: for adult dogs - 18 - 70 units; for adult cats - 39 - 55 units.

in young animals during the growth period, the activity of alkaline phosphatase increases several times and is not an informative indicator.

Increased: Fracture healing, osteomalacia, bone tumors, cholangitis, Cushing's syndrome, bile duct obstruction, gallbladder tumors; abscess, cirrhosis, liver cancer, hepatitis, bacterial gastrointestinal infections, fatty foods, pregnancy.

Decreased: Hypothyroidism, anemia, hypovitaminosis C, the use of corticosteroids.

Acid phosphatase (cf)

In males, 50% of the CF contained in the serum comes from the prostate gland, and the rest comes from the liver and decaying platelets and erythrocytes. In females, CF is produced by the liver, red blood cells and platelets.

Reference intervals: dogs - 1-6 E/l cats - 1-6 E/l

Elevated: Prostate carcinoma (in the initial stage of prostate cancer, the activity of CF may be within the normal range). With metastases of prostate carcinoma into the bone tissue, the alkaline phosphatase also increases. Prostate massage, catheterization, cystoscopy, rectal examinations lead to an increase in CF, so it is recommended to take blood for analysis no earlier than 48 hours after these procedures.

Downgraded: Has no diagnostic value.

Lipase

Lipase is an enzyme that catalyzes the cleavage of glycerides of higher fatty acids. The body produces a number of organs and tissues, which makes it possible to distinguish between lipase of gastric origin, pancreas, lung lipase, intestinal juice, leukocytes, etc. Serum lipase is the sum of organ lipases, and an increase in its activity is a consequence of a pathological process in any organ. Fluctuations in the activity of serum lipase in a healthy animal are insignificant.

Reference intervals: dogs - 30-250 E/l cats - 30-400 E/l

Increased: Acute pancreatitis (there may be an increase of 200 times compared to the norm) - lipase activity in the blood increases rapidly within a few hours after an attack of pancreatitis, reaching a maximum after 12-24 hours, and remains elevated for 10-12 days, i.e. a longer time than the activity ?- amylases. With malignant neoplasm of the pancreas in the early stage of the disease.

Reduced: Stomach cancer (in the absence of metastases to the liver and pancreas), with malignant neoplasm of the pancreas in the later period of the disease (as the gland tissue resolves).

Substrates and fats

Total bilirubin

Bilirubin is a product of hemoglobin metabolism, conjugated in the liver with glucuronic acid to form mono- and diglucuronides secreted with bile (direct bilirubin). The level of bilirubin in serum increases with liver diseases, biliary tract obstruction or hemolysis. During hemolysis, unconjugated (indirect) bilirubin is formed, therefore, high total bilirubin will be observed with normal direct.

Reference intervals: for dogs – 3.0 – 13.5 mmol/l; for cats – 3.0 – 12.0 mmol/l.

Increased: Damage to liver cells of various types, obturation of the bile ducts, hemolysis

Decreased: Bone marrow diseases, anemia, hypoplasia, fibrosis

Bilirubin straight

Reference intervals: for dogs - 0.0 - 5.5 mmol/l; for cats - 0.0 - 5.5 mmol/l.

Increased: bile duct obstruction, cholestasis, liver abscess, leptospirosis, chronic hepatitis

Downgraded: has no diagnostic value.

Urea

Urea is formed in the liver as a result of neutralization of highly toxic ammonia formed as a result of bacterial fermentation in the gastrointestinal tract, deamination of amino acids, purine and pyrimidine bases, biogenic amines, etc. It is excreted by the kidneys.

Reference intervals: for dogs – 3.5 – 9.2 mmol/l; for cats – 5.4 – 12.1 mmol/l.

Increased: Impaired renal function (renal failure), protein-rich diet, acute hemolytic anemia, shock, stress, vomiting, diarrhea, acute myocardial infarction

Lowered: Low protein intake in the body, severe liver disease

Creatinine

Creatinine is the end product of creatine metabolism, synthesized in the kidneys and liver from three amino acids (arginine, glycine, methionine). Creatinine is completely excreted from the body by the kidneys by glomerular filtration, without being reabsorbed in the renal tubules. This property of creatinine is used to study the level of glomerular filtration by creatinine clearance in urine and blood serum.

Reference intervals: for dogs - 26.0 - 120.0 mmol/l; for cats - 70.0 - 165.0 mmol/l.

Increased: Impaired renal function (renal insufficiency), hyperthyroidism, the use of furosemide, vitamin C., glucose, indomethacin, mannitol. Patients with diabetic ketoacidosis may have falsely elevated creatinine levels.

Lowered: Pregnancy, age-related decrease in muscle mass

Uric acid

Uric acid is the end product of purine metabolism. It is formed in the liver as a result of the breakdown of nucleotides, deamination of aminopurines and subsequent oxidation of oxypurines. It is excreted from the body by the kidneys.

Reference intervals: dogs - 9-100 mmol/l, cats - up to 150 mmol/l

Increased: Significantly - in violation of the excretion of uric acid from the body (kidney disease, urolithiasis, acidosis, toxicosis), gout - due to an increase in the synthesis of uric acid.

Slightly – when taking food rich in purines (meat, liver, kidneys), some hematological diseases (leukemia, B12 deficiency. anemia), cellular cytolysis, diabetes mellitus.

Downgraded: Has no diagnostic value.

Total protein

The total serum protein consists mainly of albumins and globulins. The globulin level is calculated by subtracting the albumin level from the total protein level. Hypoproteinemia indicates hypoalbuminemia, because albumin is the main serum protein. The concentration of serum /plasma protein is determined by the nutritional status, liver, kidney function, hydration and various pathological processes. The protein concentration determines the colloidal osmotic (oncotic) pressure.

Reference intervals: for dogs - 40.0 - 73.0 g/l; for cats - 54.0 - 77.0 g/l.

Increased: Dehydration, venous stasis. Tumors, inflammatory processes, infections, hyperimmunoglobulinemia

Reduced: Protein loss in gastroenteropathies, nephrotic syndrome, decreased protein synthesis, chronic hepatitis, hepatosis, impaired protein absorption

Albumin

Albumins are the most homogeneous fraction of simple proteins, almost exclusively synthesized in the liver. About 40% of albumins are in plasma, the rest are in the intercellular fluid. The main functions of albumins are maintenance of oncotic pressure, as well as participation in the transport of small endo- and exogenous substances (free fatty acids, bilirubin, steroid hormones, magnesium, calcium, drugs, etc.).

Reference intervals: for dogs - 22.0 - 39.0 g/l; for cats - 25.0 - 37.0 g/l.

Elevated: State of dehydration

Reduced: Alimentary dystrophy, acute and chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis of the liver, gastrointestinal diseases, nephrotic syndrome, chronic pyelonephritis, Cushing's syndrome, cachexia, severe infections, pancreatitis, eczema, exudative dermatopathies.

Glucose

Blood glucose level is the main indicator of carbohydrate metabolism. Since glucose is evenly distributed between plasma and shaped elements, its amount can be determined both in whole blood and in serum and plasma.

Reference intervals: for dogs - 4.3 - 7.3 mmol/l; for cats - 3.3 - 6.3 mmol/l.

Increased: diabetes mellitus, Cushing's syndrome, stress, shock, stroke, myocardial infarction, physical activity, chronic liver and kidney diseases, pheochromacytoma, glucangioma, pancreatitis, the use of corticosteroids, nicotinic acid, vitamin C, diuretics.

Decreased: Pancreatic diseases, stomach cancer, fibrosarcoma, liver parenchyma lesion, insulin shock

Cholesterol

Cholesterol levels are determined by fat metabolism, which in turn depends on heredity, diet, liver, kidney, thyroid and other endocrine organs. Total cholesterol consists of low- and high-density lipoproteins (LDL and HDL) and about a fifth of triglycerides.

Reference intervals: for dogs - 2.9 - 6.5 mmol/l; for cats - 1.6 - 3.7 mmol/l.

Increased: Hyperlipoproteinemia, liver disease, cholestasis, chronic renal failure, nephrotic syndrome, pancreatic tumors, coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, the use of corticosteroids, sulfonamides, thiazide diuretics

Reduced: HDL deficiency, hypoproteinemia, liver tumors and cirrhosis, hyperthyroidism, acute and chronic renal failure, hepatic insufficiency (terminal stages), rheumatoid arthritis, malnutrition and absorption, acute infections

triglycerides

Feed fats are hydrolyzed in the small intestine, absorbed and resynthesized by mucosal cells, after which they are secreted into lymphatic vessels in the form of chylomicrons. Triglycerides of chylomicrons are excreted from the blood by tissue lipoprotein lipase. Endogenous triglyceride production occurs in the liver. These triglycerides are transported in association with b-lipoproteins as part of very low density lipoproteins (VLDL).

Reference intervals: for dogs - 0.24 - 0.98 mmol/l; for cats - 0.38 - 1.10 mmol/l.

Increased: Hyperlipoproteinemia, diabetes mellitus, hepatitis, cirrhosis, obstructive jaundice, acute and chronic pancreatitis, nephrotic syndrome, chronic renal failure, acute myocardial infarction, coronary heart disease, pregnancy, stress; taking corticosteroids, estrogens, beta-blockers, diuretics, a diet high in fat, carbohydrates

Decreased: Fasting, hyperthyroidism, acute infections, chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases, hyperthyroidism; taking ascorbic acid, heparin

Electrolytes

Potassium (K)

Potassium is the main intracellular cation, the concentration of which in serum is regulated by its excretion in urine, and other mechanisms. The concentration of potassium in the serum determines neuromuscular excitability. Reduced or elevated potassium levels in the blood affect muscle contractility

Reference intervals: for dogs - 4.3 - 6.2 mmol/l; for cats - 4.1 - 5.4 mmol/l

Increased: Hemolysis, tissue damage, fasting, diabetic ketoacidosis, renal failure with anuria, oliguria, acidosis, taking potassium-sparing diuretics (spironolactone, triamterene), beta-blockers, ACE inhibitors, high doses of sulfadimethoxine (Co-trimoxazole).

Decreased: Fasting, vomiting, diarrhea, renal tubular acidosis, aldosteronism, muscular atrophy, the use of furosemide, steroids, insulin, glucose.

Sodium (Na)

Sodium is the predominant extracellular cation. The sodium level is primarily determined by the volemic status of the body.

Reference intervals: for dogs - 138 - 164 mmol/l; for cats - 143 - 165 mmol/l.

Increased: dehydration, polyuria, diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus, chronic glomerulonephritis, hypoparathyroidism, chronic renal failure, bone tumors, osteolysis, osteodystrophy, hypervitaminosis D, furosemide, tetracycline, steroid hormones.

Decreased: Vitamin D deficiency, osteomalacia, maladsorption, hyperinsulinism, taking analgesics, anticonvulsants, insulin. False hyponatremia can occur with severe lipemia or hyperproteinemia if the analysis is done with dilution of the sample.

Total calcium (Ca)

Serum calcium is the sum of calcium ions, including those associated with proteins (mainly albumin). The level of calcium ions is regulated by parathyroid hormone and vitamin D.

Reference intervals: for dogs – 2.3 – 3.3 mmol/l; for cats – 2.0 – 2.7 mmol/l.

Elevated: Hyperparathyroidism, bone tumors, lymphoma, leukemia, sarcoidosis, vitamin D overdose

Decreased: Hypoparathyroidism, hypovitaminosis D, chronic renal failure, cirrhosis of the liver, pancreatitis, osteomalacia, the use of anticonvulsants.

PHOSPHORUS (P)

The concentration of inorganic phosphates in blood plasma is determined by the function of the parathyroid glands, the activity of vitamin D, the absorption process in the gastrointestinal tract, kidney function, bone metabolism and nutrition. It is necessary to evaluate the indicator in combination with calcium and alkaline phosphatase.

Reference intervals: for dogs - 1.13 - 3.0 mmol/l; for cats - 1.1 - 2.3 mmol/l.

Increased: Renal insufficiency, massive hemotransfusion, hypoparathyroidism, Hypervitaminosis D, bone tumors, lymphoma, leukemia, ketosis in diabetes mellitus, healing bone fractures, the use of diuretics, anabolic steroids.

Decreased: Hyperparathyroidism, hypovitaminosis D (rickets, osteomalacia), gastrointestinal diseases, eating disorders, severe diarrhea, vomiting, intravenous glucose injection, insulin therapy, the use of anticonvulsants.

Iron (Fe)

The concentration of iron in serum is determined by its absorption in the intestine; deposition in the intestine, liver, bone marrow; the degree of decay or loss of hemoglobin; the volume of hemoglobin biosynthesis.

Reference intervals: for dogs - 20.0 - 30.0 mmol/l; for cats - 20.0 - 30.0 mmol/l.

Increased: hemosiderosis, aplastic and hemolytic anemia, acute (viral) hepatitis, cirrhosis, fatty liver dystrophy, nephritis, lead poisoning; estrogen intake.

Reduced: Iron deficiency anemia, nephrotic syndrome, malignant tumors, infections, postoperative period.

Magnesium (Mg)

Magnesium, first of all, is an intracellular cation (60% is contained in bones); it is a necessary cofactor of numerous enzyme systems, especially ATPases. Magnesium affects the neuromuscular response and excitability. The concentration of magnesium in extracellular fluid is determined by its absorption from the intestine, excretion by the kidneys, and exchange with bones and intracellular fluid.

Reference intervals: for dogs – 0.8 – 1.4 mmol/l; for cats – 0.9 – 1.6 mmol/l.

Increased: Dehydration, renal failure, tissue injury, hypocorticism; taking acetylsalicylate (long-term), triamterene, magnesium salts, progesterone.

Reduced: Magnesium deficiency, tetany, acute pancreatitis, pregnancy, diarrhea, vomiting, the use of diuretics, calcium salts, citrates (with hemotransfusion).

Chlorine (Cl)

Chlorine is the most important inorganic anion of extracellular fluid, it is important in maintaining normal acid-base balance and normal osmolality. When chlorides are lost (in the form of HCl or NH4Cl), alkalosis occurs, acidosis occurs when ingested or injected with chlorides.

Reference intervals: for dogs - 96.0 - 118.0 mmol/l; for cats - 107.0 - 122.0 mmol/l.

Increased: Hypohydration, acute renal failure, diabetes insipidus, renal tubular acidosis, metabolic acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, adrenal hypofunction, traumatic brain injuries, corticosteroids, salicylates (intoxication).

Decreased: hypochloremic alkalosis, after punctures with ascites, prolonged vomiting, diarrhea, respiratory acidosis, nephritis, laxatives, diuretics, corticosteroids (for a long time).

Acidity (pH)

Reference intervals: for dogs - 7.35 - 7.45; for cats - 7.35 - 7.45

Elevated: Alkalosis (respiratory, non-respiratory)

Reduced: Acidosis (respiratory, metabolic)

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